Adaptations and Marketing Strategies Used by Oil Firms in Nigeria

Presentation Nigeria has plans for expanding the creation of oil to around 40 million. Nigeria is the main oil creating nation in Africa and is positioned the seventh universally (NNPC 2004).The government target accomplishing half of the constituents in oil by 2010.Oil and other characteristic recourses are viewed as national assets.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on Adaptations and Marketing Strategies Used by Oil Firms in Nigeria explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, research shows this isn't correct if there should be an occurrence of Nigeria. Birdsall and Subramanian (2004, p.77) clarify that many creating nations wealthy in normal assets and oil have a for each capita pay that is under 1 dollar for every day. Such nations have unexpected frailty records, high baby death rates, miscreant hope and elevated levels of proficiency. They further clarify that the vacillations in global costs bring about risky financial cycles that make it hard for the administration to get ready for improvement particularly, in the event that they utilize their cash admirably during times of monetary blast and run dry when there is a fall in oil costs bringing about a financial bust. As indicated by Birdsall and Subramanian (2004, p.84), there is a Dutch sickness when assets are found that makes the economy solid. The money becomes solid which brings about items being costly in the worldwide market that prompts less income and low fare. This causes the economy to experience the ill effects of financial droop. There are deficiently solid political and financial organizations in nations wealthy in assets. Analysts further show that nations that have assets like oil ought to receive promoting systems to enhance their presentation (Obadina 2003, p.11). Oil is the main mineral delivered in Nigeria. It is to a great extent built up in the Niger Delta that is comprised of Ondo and Imo states, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa and Delta states. Oil investigati on in Nigeria started in 1938. Today, Nigeria is the main oil maker and exporter in Africa. Oil gives 70% of Nigeria’s outside trade. Nigeria represents 25 billion barrels out of the 66 billion barrels saved by Africa. Nonetheless, Nigeria has more oil and gas stores yet this has brought about negative effects thus making the investigation of oil a revile instead of a blessing.Advertising Looking for thesis on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This examination has an aim of extending the utilization of promoting procedures to enhance the presentation of oil industry in Nigeria. To accomplish destinations and objectives that have been set by the association, an association should execute and structure different promoting techniques. Different creators see advertising techniques in different points of view for example: It is viewed as a framework to design, advance, produce, and uber showcase thoughts, administrations, and merchandise that are appropriate to customers and clients. It has been distinguished that Nigerians oil delivering organizations were not enterprising and this was credited to a few elements: Inadequate prepared labor, poor advancement of foundation, and insufficient funding to utilize advertising methodologies in their oil organizations. Issue Statement Some oil firms in Nigeria have been encountering low deals from the offer of oil. Nigerians through involve Nigeria are challenging the evacuation of the appropriation asserting that this will influence the individuals of Nigeria, for example, there may be a climbing of costs that will bring about a proportionate increment in the expense of creation of administrations and merchandise that will later be moved to the network, prompting high paces of expansion. They guarantee that before the evacuation of the endowment, the ascent in the expense of creation continued as before. The results of this examina tion will empower future exploration here, just as will recognize the methodologies of advertising that will be utilized by oil firms in Nigeria and the effects of the showcasing techniques used to enhance the offer of oil. Reason for the Study The point of this exploration is to investigate key administration as an approach to progress for oil firms in Nigeria. Most of examination that has been completed centered around the natural impacts of oil investigation and misuse. Despite the fact that misuse of oil in Nigeria has brought about unfavorable positive effects on the economy of Nigeria, much must be investigated about advertising procedures utilized by oil firms in Nigeria to showcase oil items. Points and Objective of the Study These goals are defined for the current investigation to be completed: To assess the showcasing methodologies utilized by oil firms in Nigeria to Market their items. To assess an oil firm that has profited by the utilization of showcasing procedures in advertising of oil. To evaluate the proficiency of the showcasing systems in advertising of oil in Nigeria Research Questions This examination will address the accompanying questions:Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Adaptations and Marketing Strategies Used by Oil Firms in Nigeria explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More What are a portion of the promoting techniques utilized in showcasing of oil items in Nigeria? What is the adequacy of the utilization of these systems in improving oil execution? Which oil firm has profoundly profited by the utilization of these techniques? Writing survey The extension of oil delivering organizations in Nigeria is in connection with factors influencing rivalry. The development in organizations for oil items in Nigeria isn't in connection with the expansion in attention to gas and oil administrations to the intrigued customers with regards to the general population. The oil business in Nigeria ids accepted to hav e a sort of corporate execution for as long as years to accomplish a noteworthy piece of the overall industry (Okwor 1992, p.8). There re different meanings of promoting methodologies reflecting different viewpoints (Li et al 2000, p.6). Advertising methodology empower an organization to use assets of an association in order to accomplish its points and targets. This will include the utilization of natural factors and showcasing blend (Li et al 2000 p.20). The motivation behind promoting technique is to discover the quality, nature, and the connection between the ecological factors and showcasing blend in a specific conditions (Jain and Punj 1997, p.37). As per McDonald (1992, p.37), the point of the showcasing technique in an association is to protect, construct, keep up, and set up its upper hand. The improvement of a showcasing system requires the accompanying: It needs one to have concentrated information on the business. It expects chiefs to have judgment, instinct and experien ce (Brownlie Spender 1990, p.42). One ought to have wide data about key administration (Berry, 1997). This examination will decide key administration utilized by the oil businesses in Nigeria, the impact of environmental elements on the advertising techniques and the proficiency of these showcasing methodologies. There are a few advertising apparatuses that can be utilized by advertisers in showcasing their items for example: megamarketing (Kortler 1996, p.11), and the 4Ps of promoting. Numerous chiefs utilize the promoting idea to perform different administrations of a firm (Kotler Connor 1997, p.15). Showcasing is a significant perspective that encourages numerous associations to accomplish their objectives and manage difficulties confronting the business association (Kotler Connor 1997, p.15). As per Brownlie and Spender (2005, p.38) vital showcasing includes making inclinations. The technique is utilized to push chiefs to in accomplishing their strategies and objectives. Woodwar d (2004) states that vital administration is a procedure of estimating the future and concocting suitable strategies to empower one accomplish his objectives. Strategy The exploration technique that will be utilized for this examination is a cross sectional overview. I picked this technique since it can deal with a huge populace. This overview technique will be utilized to evaluate the capacity of vital showcasing in the endurance and development of oil firms in Nigeria so as to achieve the ideal results. I will pick 350 respondents from the objective populace of 2500 individuals through arbitrary sampling.Advertising Searching for exposition on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More We will likewise utilize surveys to gather data from representatives of oil organizations in Nigeria. The partners to be met include: workers of oil firms in Nigeria, pioneers and inhabitants of other oil organizations in the nation (Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team 1999, p.288). I will introduce information that I will break down by utilization of recurrence tables, expressive insights, connection coefficients, and investigation of difference. Elucidating measurements will assist me with analyzing the highlights of the populace as appeared by the example. It will likewise show if the showcasing procedures utilized were compelling in the oil businesses in Nigeria. The objective populace for my examination is workers of oil creating organizations in Nigeria. An Overview of the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited Shell Company began its business in Nigeria in the year 1937 and procured a permit of activity in 1938. It found its first oil field in 1958 at Oloi biri in Niger Delta and began to send out oil in 1958 (Oshineye 2000, p.23). It is the biggest petroleum product organization in Nigeria. Its significant movement is investigation of oil and physical creation. The investigation of gas and unrefined petroleum by the shell organization in Nigeria has different exercises that incorporate the utilization of explosives and dynamites. Explosives are generally detonated from the earth through dry land and water bodies. This straightforwardly influences fauna and oceanic life (Prince 1993, p.230). It is guaranteed that the abuse of oil by this organization

Romeo Essays (1087 words) - Rodham Family, Bill Clinton,

Romeo As cited by Hamlet in the play by William Shakespeare, To be or not to be, that is the question(Fetzer 360). When regarding the matter of President Clinton, some would prefer he not be than to be. Some look downward on him in light of ongoing allegations against him concerning him having a sexual relationship with somebody other than his better half and afterward lying about not partaking in any of his charged dirty tricks. The entire experience has disturbed numerous guardians about how their youngsters will respond to all that is going on about the Clinton embarrassment, yet at the same time a few guardians discover it as an instructive and to some degree productive exercise to show their kids. The Presidency is a profoundly good undertaking and the President has disrespected his office. As pioneer of the free world, it is his obligation to set a genuine model. To little shock, there are a few nations that are maddened by the manner in which the President has taken care of himself of late. The Clinton embarrassment is allowing guardians to have genuine converses with their kids, defending the demonstration of lying in the psyches of youngsters, and giving nations motivation to look downward on the United States. Because of President Clinton's activities concerning these claims, there have been three significant and clear effects on the present society. To begin with, the outrage is allowing guardians to plunk down and have genuine talks with their kids. Youngsters are keen on finding out about what is new with the President and why he is in a tough situation, so guardians discover this as an advantageous time to discuss lying and lying's intense outcomes. As expressed by Chuck Green, I composed that guardians can refer to no better model than Bill Clinton not for instance of pulling off lying however for instance of its consequences(Green n.pag.). The issue with this is guardians in some cases get into a tight spot when they don't have the foggiest idea what to tell their kids, however Chuck Green answers by saying, Just come clean with your children - that lying doesn't pay, regardless of whether you are the President. At some point or another, you'll pay a substantial price(Green n.pag). Lying isn't the main significant issue that the President's issues have brought to numerous guardians' consideration. Sex has become another iss ue that guardians can talk about with their youngsters in light of the ongoing embarrassments. A great deal of guardians decide not to inform their youngsters regarding sexual intercourse, however the outrage nearly compels them to discuss it. Mr. Clinton's difficulties likewise are calling guardians out with regards to clarifying sex, which is a decent thing(MacDonald n.pag.). At the point when gotten some information about her opinion of the Clinton embarrassment, Amy McMahon said that, She and different guardians and specialists say that conversations with kids regarding the President's on going issues may verge on 'disagreeable' and 'sickening'. A few, however, consider it to be a chance to discuss family esteems, proper and unseemly practices and what happens when individuals get into trouble(MacDonald n.pag.). Sex is a piece of everybody's life, and it has the need to be examined with a youngster in the long run; this improper circumstance takes into account a decent conversat ion around there. Next, in the brains of youngsters, the President's lying has fundamentally defended the demonstration of lying. Kids consider the To be as a good example, which they gaze upward to and here and there mimic in activities. A kid said of the President, He can't lie like all of us, 'cause he's a job model(Shales n.pag.). In the event that children discover the President as a good example and they see and know about the President doing these awful things, it may get imbedded in their minds that what the President has done is all right(Hoover n.pag.). Taking a gander at the circumstance from another stance, some may state that they see the President doing terrible things then they will gain from his mix-ups, correct? That isn't accurate. Guardians have attempted to instruct their kids directly from wrong and they have consistently advised them to get a good example to gaze upward to. On the off chance that the President is a good example thus numerous children admire him, at that point the y will think what he is doing

Argumentative Essay Topics

Argumentative Essay TopicsWriting an argumentative essay is not easy, especially if you are not accustomed to essay writing. But with some common sense and a lot of practice, you will get the hang of it eventually. In this article I am going to share with you some of the main argumentative essay topics that you can use when you are writing.Before I delve deeper into political issues, let's have a look at what a political debate is. A political debate is just what it sounds like. It is a debate between two political parties. The topic is chosen by the host of the debate's moderator, or moderator can pick a topic for the debate as well.The topics vary between debates but almost always involve two sides of political arguments. So, let's say that you are writing an argumentative essay about the Georgia election, or in any other subject, the topic should be one side of a political argument. The debate could be on what is wrong with a certain politician, or how he can be reformed.Next, let 's look at what an argumentative essay is not about. You cannot write an argumentative essay about a protest, a political rally, or anything that is related to politics. All these topics belong to essay writing topics, and not argumentative essay topics.Argumentative essay topics usually do not focus on your own personal life, or about your private life. An argumentative essay is a review of existing facts. There is no need to tell a story about yourself. And you shouldn't try to prove anything about yourself.There are some good topics for argumentative essays about Georgia politics. One of them is the loss of the agricultural jobs due to international competition. Another is the economic crisis in Georgia that caused the people to go to the polls and vote for a new leader. This is another big controversy in Georgia that you should write about, and what better way than an argumentative essay topic about it.Finally, there is also the debate on the good government reforms by Georgia. The main argument that Georgia has many corrupt officials is a big debate in Georgia and one that you should definitely write about.For you to be able to write a persuasive essay, you need to study up about argumentative topics. Learn about political debate topics and write about them, and then you will be well on your way to writing a successful persuasive essay.

Cerebrum and Dementia Care Unit-2 - 1819 Words

Unit-1, Q1. Explain what is meant by the term `dementia Unit-1, Q2. Describe how dementia can affect a person if the following areas of the brain are damaged by dementia Frontal lobe: Parietal lobe: Temporal lobe: Occipital lobe: Cerebellum: Unit-1, Q3.Explain why the following may be mistaken for dementia a) depression b) delirium c) age related memory impairment Unit-1, Q4. Give an outline of the following models of dementia a) The medical model of dementia b) The social model of dementia Unit-1, Q5. Explain why it is important to see dementia as a disability Unit-1, Q6. List the four most common causes of dementia Unit-1, Q7. Describe the signs and symptoms associated with the four most common causes of dementia Unit-1, Q8. Outline†¦show more content†¦Unit-4, Q3. Explain how negative beliefs, values and misunderstandings can affect a persons attitude towards people with dementia. Unit-4, Q4. Explain how positive beliefs and values can affect a persons attitude towards a people with dementia. Unit-4, Q5. Describe the steps you can take to ensure a person with dementia feels valued , included and able to engage in daily life. Unit-4, Q6. Describe the practices that could make a person with dementia feel excluded. Unit-4, Q7. Explain why it is important to include individuals with dementia in all aspects of their care. Unit-4, Q8. Describe how an older persons experience of dementia may be different to a younger person who develops dementia. Unit-4, Q9. Mr Singh is a 75 year old gentleman who moved to England from India when he was in his 30s. Mr Singh is a practicing Sikh. He does speak English but because of his dementia he has reverted to only speaking in Punjabi. Describe the steps you could take to gain knowledge and understanding of Mr Singhs needs and preferences. Unit-4, Q10. Sophie is a 39 year old lady who has Downs syndrome. She has also developed dementia which is progressing quite quickly. Sophie has been admitted to a care facility which specialises in supporting people who have learning disabilities and also have dementia. Describe the knowledge and understanding that the staff would need in order to work in a person-centred way with Sophie. Unit-5, Q1.List four different groupsShow MoreRelatedDementia Essay3997 Words   |  16 Pagesï » ¿Unit 4222-237 SADIE LEWIS Outcome 1 1.1 Dementia is the progressive decline in the cognitive function, involving all aspects of perception, thinking, reasoning and remembering. This is largely to do with damage or disease. This is progressive and leads to the deterioration of the mind, affecting an individual’s ability to concentrate on daily tasks. The memory is often affected, causing them to forget people, dates and events that are recent to them, behaviour can be erraticRead MoreHealth and Social Care2195 Words   |  9 PagesUnit 13 –Dementia Awareness 1) 1.1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘dementia’ Dementia is a set of symptoms that affect the way people think and interact with each other. It is not a disease, but can often be linked to a disease or damage done to the brain. Short-time memory, mind, speech and motor skills are affected. Certain forms of dementia cause a change in the personality of the individual. A person suffering from dementia will lose certain skills and knowledge they already had. ThisRead MoreUnit 4222-237 Dementia Awareness (DEM 201) Essay4308 Words   |  18 Pagesï » ¿Unit 4222-237 Dementia Awareness (DEM 201) 1.1 – Explain what is meant by the term ‘dementia’ The term dementia describes a set of symptoms which include loss of memory, mood changes and problems with communication and reasoning. These symptoms occur when the brain is damaged by numerous certain diseases. Dementia is progressive, which means the symptoms will gradually get worse. How fast dementia progresses will depend on the individual person and what type of dementia they have. Each personRead MorePsychology Workbook Essay22836 Words   |  92 PagesPsychologists study animal behavior. ____X_ Psychologists study emotions and mental processes. _____ Psychology and common sense lead to the same conclusions about behavior and mental processes. _____ Psychology is not a science. Objective I.2 Define the scientific method, and explain how it is used in psychology? Psychologists use the scientific method to evaluate competing ideas; find relationship of variables by collecting data |Margin Learning Question(s) (if applicable) Read MoreSocm Study Guide Essay30404 Words   |  122 Pagessystems of the body and the major components of each system. 1. Integumentary system: * Cutaneous membrane (layers of skin) * Hair follicles * Hair * Sebaceous glands * Sweat glands * Nails * Sensory Receptors 2. Skeletal System: * Bones (s06), Cartilages, ligaments * Axial skeleton – skull, vertebrae, sacrum, rib s, sternum * Appendicular skeleton – limbs and supporting bones * Bone Marrow 3. Muscular System: * skeletal muscles

The True Value Of Corporate Governance Essay Example For Free At Magic Help - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1425 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? The topic of corporate governance is vital to every listed corporation because the related principles guide the business practice and provide higher values with higher profitability for the corporation, (Aksu and Kosedag 2005). It is about rules and regulations and also a matter of ethics, therefore failure to comply with corporate governance issue has an unfavorable impact on the capital market and their investors, (International Federation of Accountants 2008). The lack of effective corporate governance results in huge amount of financial losses of corporations, like the Hong Kong listed company: CITIC Pacific Limiteds incident in 2008. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The True Value Of Corporate Governance Essay Example For Free At Magic Help" essay for you Create order This signals corporations that good corporate governance practice is fundamental to corporations success. This study is to find out the relationship between corporate governance practice and financial performance of corporations. More importantly, the Code of Corporate Governance Practice has become effective from 1 January 2005 onwards and listed corporations in Hong Kong must comply with the mandatory provisions. Corporations are also encouraged to comply with the voluntarily guidelines for best practices. Judges Report of the HKMA Best Annual Report Award 1994 pointed out that prior research shows that corporations only comply with minimum disclosure requirements of corporate governance standards. This study is going to assess the level of compliance of corporations with both mandatory provisions and voluntarily practices. It is commonly agreed that corporations in industry other than retail, especially the banking, public utility service, and property development industry, have better performance in corporate governance since 1990s when the corporate governance standards have evolved significantly. For example, Sun Hung Kai Properties Limited obtained the Corporate Governance Asia Recognition Award in 2009 from the Corporate Governance Asia Magazine; CLP Power Hong Kong Limited won the top award from the Hong Kong Institutes of Professional Certified Accountants (HKICPA) for the seventh successive year; and HSBC Holdings plc won the Best Corporate Governance Disclosure Award 2009 from HKICPA too. But for the retail industry, there is less prior research for investigating the corporate governance disclosure of these companies. Therefore this study is going to investigate the practice in the retail industry. 1.2 Research Aims and Objectives 1.2.1 Research Aims The research aim is to examine how corporate governance practice is disclosed in the retail industry and how it contributes to the corporations by looking at its impact on firms performance in operating, financial and stock market aspects. 1.2.2 Research Objectives To critically examine the importance of corporate governance to corporations and identify the contributions of corporate governance framework. To evaluate the disclosure behavior of listed firms in retail industry of Hong Kong. To compare corporate governance practice of the listed firms in retail industry of Hong Kong. To investigate whether or not companies with good governance would have better performance in operating, financial and stock market aspects by conducting ratio analysis. 1.3 Research Outline The remainder of the research is set as follows. Chapter 2 reviews prior research and literature about theoretical framework, importance and contribution of corporate governance, development of governance disclosure, measurement of corporate governance, and hypotheses development. Chapter 3 describes the methodologies of the research. Chapter 4 shows the empirical findings: (1) corporations ranking for governance disclosure, and (2) relationship between corporate governance and performance. Chapter 5 concludes the research. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Definition There is no single definition for corporate governance as it varies from countries by countries and firms by firms (Craig et al. 2007) and depends on how one view this (Salehi 2008). Salehi summarized the studies of prior researchers and grouped corporate governance into four views: accountability, integrity, efficiency and transparency. For the purpose of measuring corporate governance, Standard Poors defined corporate governance as the reciprocal actions and influence of agents (managers and directors) and principal (shareholders) to manage the corporation in which the actions enable stakeholders to obtain certain returns from that corporation (Standard Poors Governance Service 2004). It is similarly defined by the Hong Kong Institutes of Certified Professional Accountants (HKICPA) and Organization for Economic Co-operation Development (OECD) as coordination processes between manager, board members, shareholders and stakeholders, and the organizational structures which drive the direction, operation and the monitoring the corporation for achieving the organizational objectives. (Abdullah and Valentine 2009) provided a boarder definition for corporate governance as processes of managerial decisions making and a set of rules of management for both economic and non-economic activities carried out by the corporation. 2.2 Theoretical framework There had been widely discussed the issue of separation of ownership and control of corporation in prior research (Boubakri et al. 2008). Two major theories were used to explain the issue where the agency theory on one hand presented a divergence of interests of agent and principal, and stewardship theory on the other hand demonstrated alignment of those interests (Davis et al 1997). (Mallin 2007) suggested several theories would influence the development of corporate governance, namely agency theory, stakeholder theory and stewardship theory. 2.2.1 Agency Theory (Jensen and Meckling 1976) famously describes the relationship between shareholders and managers as pure agency relationship where the shareholders (principal) who owned and acquired ownership of the corporation and maximized their returns with the assist of agents who serve the shareholders interests and control the corporation. (Davis et al. 1997) quoted the idea of (Walsh and Seward 1990) that organization would lose competitive advantages and would be unable to continue if managers act adversely with the shareholders aspiration. The author further explained that agency problem occurred when there is a lack of attention to maximizing shareholder returns, i.e. self-interested opportunism, where the principal is affected by the self-interest of their agents. Prior research have suggested two control mechanisms, the alternative executive compensation schemes and governance structures, can be used to solve the agency problem, to ensure shareholders wealth maximization and to g uide the agents behavior (Demsetz and Lehn 1985; Jensen and Meckling 1976; and Davis et al. 1997). It is proved that agency costs have affected the means and mechanisms of corporation governance (Hutchinson and Gul 2003) and agency costs incurred for providing incentives and compensations for managers and monitoring their conducts can prohibit individualism of managers (Roberts 2005). Researchers had suggested that there are limitations associated with agency theory (Doucouliagos 1994 and Davis et al. 1997) as this assumed divergence of interests resulted from individualism of managers which in reality may not be appropriate to be applied to all agents. Moreover, as stated by (Jensen and Meckling 1976), controls of agency only provide potential profits that pleasing shareholders instead of making certain the shareholders wealth are maximized. (Roberts 2005) provided other opposes to this assumption, for example, (Donaldson and Dais 1991) who applies Mc Gregors Theory Y to agen ts. 2.2.2 Stewardship Theory (Davis et al. 1997) quoted the definition of stewardship theory introduced by (Donalson and Davis 1989, 1991) as a means of defining relationships based upon other behavior premises which is opposed to the agency theory. (Mallin 2007) explain that stewardship theory draws on the assumptions underlying agency theory. With regard to the stewardship theory, organizational structure is supposed to facilitate effective action by the managers and directors and to help them to formulate and implement plans for better corporate performance. However the theory has never been empirically to directly explain agents compensation or been used as an underlying theory (Hengarrtner 2006). 2.2.3 Stakeholder Theory The stakeholder theory applies to a wider context that to give thought to a group of people such as employees, customers, government, creditors and general public, other than just the shareholders (Mallin 2007). The author also stated that corporations strive to maximize shareholders value together with the aim to care about the interests of stakeholders. (Jensen 2001) stated there are theorists oppose to stakeholder theory because it aims to address the interests of all stakeholders which may not be logically possible and theorists provided no explanations of how to trade-off against those interests. The tradition view of stakeholder theory is therefore modified by the author who enlightened value maximization to solve problems that arise from multiple objectives that accompany traditional stakeholder theory. 2.3 Models There are four major types of corporate governance practice models adopted by corporations worldwide (Bhasa 2004). 2.3.1 Market-centric governance model 2.3.2 Relationship-based governance model 2.3.3 Transition governance model 2.3.4 Emerging governance model 2.4 Importance and Contributions Corporate governance is important because it contributes to the well-governed corporation: increase in firms value and higher profitability (Brown and Caylor 2005) and lower cost of investment of shareholders (Ashbaugh et al. 2004). Corporate governance can enhance accountability for stakeholders and ensure the corporation meets the needs of the general public (Peter and Nelson 2006). The mechanism can also minimize agency cost and avoid reduction of firms market value resulted from managers opportunism (Øyvind et al. 2004). Prior researcher had designed methodology and carried out empirical analysis in 30 countries for investigating the contribution of corporate governance, and it is found that better governance report enhance productivity of factors and economic growth (Sadka 2004).

Analysis Of John Steinbeck s Of Mice And Men Socratic...

Of Mice and Men Socratic Seminar Responses to Questions 1. Steinbeck has his characters use racially derogatory terms. Why do you think he uses this language? Given the context of the story, are these terms necessary? Is there any evidence to suggest that Steinbeck shares his characters’ bigoted views of minorities? I think Steinbeck has his characters use racially derogatory terms to show that prejudice based on race was still a prevalent issue, even though slavery and racial discrimination had not been legal for some time. Derogatory terms are directed at Crooks frequently due to his race, â€Å"‘Ever’body out doin’ som’pin’. Ever’body! An’ what am I doin’? Standin’ here talkin’ to a bunch of bindle stiffs - a nigger an’ a dum-dum and a lousy ol’ sheep (Steinbeck 78)’†. The word â€Å"nigger† is used to emphasize how bad racial prejudices were. Even in present day, it is a relevant matter that this book brings to attention. Cau sing us, as readers to realize that the issue of mistreatment due to race is an issue that has not disappeared over time. Steinbeck himself did not have a problem with the color of one’s skin. However, he did have an issue with class. This is shown by the characters in Of Mice and Men viewing wealthy people as brutal and harsh. 2. Research John Steinbeck. What elements of Steinbeck’s life are apparent in the novel? Steinbeck was born in Salinas, the setting for a large portion of his novel Of Mice and Men. When he was a teenager, he spent the majority of

Significance of the Study Sample free essay sample

The user enters a five-digit PIN using the keypad. If the user enters a valid account number and the correct PIN for that account, the screen displays the main menu. If the user enters an invalid account number or an incorrect PIN, the screen displays an appropriate message, then the ATM returns to Step 1 to restart the authentication process. After the ATM authenticates the user, the main menu contains numbered options for the three types of transactions: balance inquiry (option 1), withdrawal (option 2) and deposit (option 3). It also should contain an option to allow the user to exit the system (option 4). The user then chooses either to perform a transaction (by entering 1, 2 or 3) or to exit the system (by entering 4). If the user enters 1 to make a balance inquiry, the screen displays the user’s account balance. To do so, the ATM must retrieve the balance from the bank’s database. The following steps describe what occurs when the user enters 2 to make a withdrawal: The screen displays a menu of standard withdrawal amounts and an option to cancel the transaction. The user enters a menu selection using the keypad. If the withdrawal amount is greater than the user’s account balance, the screen displays a message stating this and telling the user to choose a smaller amount. The ATM then returns to Step 1. If the withdrawal amount chosen is less than or equal to the user’s account balance (i. e. , an acceptable amount), the ATM proceeds to Step 4. If the user chooses to cancel, the ATM displays the main menu and waits for user input. If the cash dispenser contains enough cash, the ATM proceeds to Step 5. Otherwise, the screen displays a message indicating the problem and telling the user to choose a smaller withdrawal amount. The ATM then returns to Step 1. The ATM debits the withdrawal amount from the user’s account in the bank’s database. The cash dispenser dispenses the desired amount of money to the user. The screen displays a message reminding the user to take the money. The following steps describe the actions that occur when the user enters 3 to make a deposit: The screen prompts the user to enter a deposit amount or type 0 (zero) to cancel. The user enters a deposit amount or 0 using the keypad. If the user specifies a deposit amount, the ATM proceeds to Step 4. If the user chooses to cancel the transaction (by entering 0), the ATM displays the main menu and waits for user input. The screen displays a message telling the user to insert a deposit envelope. If the deposit slot receives a deposit envelope within two minutes, the ATM credits the deposit amount to the user’s account in the bank’s database (i. e. , adds the deposit amount to the user’s account balance). After the system successfully executes a transaction, it should return to the main menu so that the user can perform additional transactions. If the user exits the system, the screen should display a thank you message, then display the welcome message for the next user. Analyzing the ATM System The preceding statement is a simplified example of a requirements document Typically the result of a detailed process of requirements gathering A systems analyst might interview banking experts to gain a better understanding of what the software must do would use the information gained to compile a list of system requirements to guide systems designers as they design the system. The software life cycle specifies the stages through which software goes from the time it’s first conceived to the time it’s retired from use. These stages typically include: analysis, design, implementation, testing and debugging, deployment, maintenance and retirement. Several software life-cycle models exist Waterfall models perform each stage once in succession Iterative models may repeat one or more stages several times throughout a product’s life cycle The analysis stage focuses on defining the problem to be solved. When designing any system, one must solve the problem right, but of equal importance, one must solve the right problem. Our requirements document describes the requirements of our ATM system in sufficient detail that you need not go through an extensive analysis stage—it’s been done for you. Use case modeling identifies the use cases of the system, each representing a different capability that the system provides to its clients. â€Å"View Account Balance† â€Å"Withdraw Cash† â€Å"Deposit Funds† Each use case describes a typical scenario for which the user uses the system. A use case diagram models the interactions between a system’s clients and its use cases. Shows the kinds of interactions users have with a system without providing the details Often accompanied by informal text that gives more detail—like the text that appears in the requirements document. Produced during the analysis stage of the software life cycle. Stick figure represents an actor, which defines the roles that an external entity—such as a person or another system—plays when interacting with the system. During the analysis stage, systems designers focus on understanding the requirements document to produce a high-level specification that describes what the system is supposed to do. The output of the design stage—a design specification specifies clearly how the system should be constructed to satisfy these requirements. In the next several sections, we perform the steps of a simple object-oriented design (OOD) process on the ATM system to produce a design specification containing a collection of UML diagrams and supporting text. We present our own simplified design process A system is a set of components that interact to solve a problem. System structure describes the system’s objects and their interrelationships. System behavior describes how the system changes as its objects interact with one another. Every system has both structure and behavior— designers must specify both. The UML 2 standard specifies 13 diagram types for documenting the system models. Each models a distinct characteristic of a system’s structure or behavior—six diagrams relate to system structure, the remaining seven to system behavior. We are interested in two of the six diagram types: Use case diagrams model the interactions between a system and its external entities (actors) in terms of use cases. Class diagrams model the classes, or â€Å"building blocks,† used in a system. Identify the classes that are needed to build the system by analyzing the nouns and noun phrases that appear in the requirements document. We introduce UML class diagrams to model these classes. Important first step in defining the system’s structure. Review the requirements document and identify key nouns and noun phrases to help us identify classes that comprise the ATM system. We may decide that some of these nouns and noun phrases are actually attributes of other classes in the system. We may also conclude that some of the nouns do not correspond to parts of the system and thus should not be modeled at all. Additional classes may become apparent to us as we proceed through the design process. We create classes only for the nouns and noun phrases that have significance in the ATM system. Though the requirements document frequently describes a â€Å"transaction† in a general sense, we do not model the broad notion of a financial transaction at this time. Instead, we model the three types of transactions (i. e. , â€Å"balance inquiry,† â€Å"withdrawal† and â€Å"deposit†) as individual classes. These classes possess specific attributes needed for executing the transactions they represent. Classes: ATM screen keypad cash dispenser deposit slot account bank database balance inquiry withdrawal deposit The UML enables us to model, via class diagrams, the classes in the ATM system and their interrelationships. Each class is modeled as a rectangle with three compartments. The top one contains the name of the class centered horizontally in boldface. The middle compartment contains the class’s attributes. The bottom compartment contains the class’s operations. The UML allows the suppression of class attributes and operations in this manner to create more readable diagrams, when appropriate. Class diagrams also show the relationships between the classes of the system. The solid line that connects the two classes represents an association between classes. The numbers near each end of the line are multiplicity values, which indicate how many objects of each class participate in the association. An association can be named. The word Executes above the line connecting classes ATM and Withdrawal in Fig. 12. 7 indicates the name of that association. This part of the diagram reads â€Å"one object of class ATM executes zero or one objects of class Withdrawal. † Association names are directional, as indicated by the filled arrowhead. The word currentTransaction at the Withdrawal end of the association line is a role name, identifying the role the Withdrawal object plays in its relationship with the ATM. A role name adds meaning to an association between classes by identifying the role a class plays in the context of an association. A class can play several roles in the same system. Role names in class diagrams are often omitted when the meaning of an association is clear without them. Solid diamonds attached to the ATM class’s association lines indicate that ATM has a composition relationship with classes Screen, Keypad, CashDispenser and DepositSlot. Composition implies a whole/part relationship. The class that has the composition symbol (the solid diamond) on its end of the association line is the whole (in this case, ATM), and the classes on the other end of the association lines are the parts. Composition relationships have the following properties: Only one class in the relationship can represent the whole The parts in the composition relationship exist only as long as the whole does, and the whole is responsible for the creation and destruction of its parts. A part may belong to only one whole at a time, although it may be removed and attached to another whole, which then assumes responsibility for the part. If a has-a relationship does not satisfy one or more of these criteria, the UML specifies that hollow diamonds be attached to the ends of association lines to indicate aggregation—a weaker form of composition. Class ATM has a one-to-one relationship with class BankDatabase—one ATM object authenticates users against one BankDatabase object. The bank’s database contains information about many accounts—one BankDatabase object participates in a composition relationship with zero or more Account objects. The multiplicity value 0.. * at the Account end of the association between class BankDatabase and class Account indicates that zero or more objects of class Account take part in the association. Class BankDatabase has a one-to-many relationship with class Account—the BankDatabase contains many Accounts. Class Account has a many-to-one relationship with class BankDatabase—there can be many Accounts stored in the BankDatabase. At any given time 0 or 1 Withdrawal objects can exist. If the user is performing a withdrawal, â€Å"one object of class Withdrawal accesses/modifies an account balance through one object of class BankDatabase. † All other parts of the system must interact with the database to retrieve or update account information. Classes have attributes (data) and operations (behaviors). Class attributes are implemented in Java programs as fields, and class operations are implemented as methods. In this section, we determine many of the attributes needed in the ATM system. Look for descriptive words and phrases in the requirements document. For each such word and phrase we find that plays a significant role in the ATM system, we create an attribute and assign it to one or more of the classes identified earlier. We also create attributes to represent any additional data that a class may need, as such needs become clear. Next the list the words or phrases from the requirements document that describe each class. For real problems in industry, there is no guarantee that requirements documents will be precise enough for the object-oriented systems designer to determine all the attributes or even all the classes. The need for additional classes, attributes and behaviors may become clear as the design process proceeds. Attributes represent an object’s state. We identify some key states that our objects may occupy and discuss how objects change state in response to various events occurring in the system. We also discuss the workflow, or activities, that objects perform in the ATM system, and we present the activities of BalanceInquiry and Withdrawal transaction objects. An operation is a service that objects of a class provide to clients (users) of the class.

Christianity and islam Essay Example

Christianity and islam Essay Reflection Paper: Both Christianity and Islam are really broad spread faiths in the universe which have a great impact on the lives of their trusters particularly spiritually. Their common originality, values and some believes has enabled most of their trusters to esteem and seek to understand each others faith. In most states of the universe these two faiths have formed the bases of the states Torahs and are extremely recognized by the authoritiess. Though Christianity is widely dispersed compared to Islam, they impose the same challenge to each other Sing the similarities and the differences between Islam and Christianity, the two can be said to be really different since the chief Prophetss and the sanctum books which form the footing and counsel of the several faiths are non acceptable to the other. Christian religion is based on birth, crucification, decease and Resurrection of Jesus Christ who is the christ which is contrary to the Muslims position of Christ being merely a prophesier among the many. Comparison between the two faiths was much easier because there s a clear difference between the beliefs of the faiths every bit good as patterns in clip of worship. This is because in twenty-four hours today life of the several trusters their spiritual positions are aired. Geting the historic beginning of the two faiths was much easier particularly that of Christianity which begun as a Judaic religious order in the Mediterranean and Islam in the seventh century after the decease of Prophet Muhammad. Geting the differences between the two both being Abrahamic faiths and the sanctum books the Quran and the Bible mentioning to similar ancient people like Isaac and Ishmael in a related context. Introduction We will write a custom essay sample on Christianity and islam specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Christianity and islam specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Christianity and islam specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Christianity is a spiritual belief which begun as a Judaic belief and is seen as Abrahamic faith. Its followings are referred to as Christians. They believe in Jesus Christ the christ as the prophesier send by God to salvage world and the sanctum bible as the usher of their religion. They besides believe that the christ who came in the signifier of world suffered, died and resurrected to remiss them of their wickednesss. It is besides believed that he would return to honor those who have lived harmonizing to the philosophies taught by the sanctum Bible. Islam is an Arabic word significance entry and hence Islam faith is believed to be an Abrahamic faith which believes in entry to the Godhead God Allah and Muhammad as the prophesier. Quran is the holy book believed to be the guideline of the Muslims who are the of the Islamic faith. It is believed that Allah repeatedly revealed it to Muhammad verbally through angel Jibril and the original Arabic version is the concluding disclosure from God which is verbal. Historic background Harmonizing to Stern ( 11-15 ) Christianity originates from the word kristos which is a Grecian word intending the anointed one and it is a monotheistic faith. It guided by the life and instructions of Christ Jesus as shown in the sanctum Bible. It begun as a Judaic religious order from the eastern Mediterranean in the first century and by the fourth century was already dominant in the Roman Empire. Most of Europe was Christianized by the Middle Ages but Middle East, North Africa and some parts in India remained with minority Christians. It spread to America, Australasia and all over the universe through colonisation, find work and missional work hence became a major influence in Western civilisation determining. Thrower argued that It is the words largest faith and represents about a one-fourth of the full population, besides considered as a province faith in several states ( 21-25 ) It is categorized into three groups: Catholics, Protestants and orthodox. Islam began developing as from the seventh century with the Reconstruction of Prophet Muhammad s life after his decease. It started distributing in Atlantic Ocean to Central Asia after Prophet Muhammad s first recitation of the Quran. Harmonizing to Williams ( 1994 ) The Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered as beginning of the western Islamic universe mosques and is preserved up to now. Mention to Abdul-Rahman Islamic dynasties like Ottomans and Mughals collapsed under the European imperial sway during 18th and 19th centuries ( 141-160 ) . Muhammad started conveying Islam at Mecca and subsequently moved to Medina where the folk of Arabia were united to a civil order of Arab Muslim religion.Umar succeeded him in 634 following his decease. The other replacements were Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Talib ; the four are referred to as al-khulafa ar-rashidun. Several struggles followed over political and spiritual leading which led to the rise of split amongst the Muslims. Basically th e beginning of Islam is tied to the economic, political and military. Similarities between Islam and Christianity Harmonizing to Strachey ( 62-69 ) both Islam and Christianity are Abrahamic faiths or in other words believe in the being of one supreme God. They both portion common values and beginning which is found in Hebraism when the people of Israel were given Torah. Islam was founded by Muhammad mentioning to the Quran while Christianity was started by the followings of Jesus of Nazareth but they both acknowledge a religious tradition related to Abraham. For the two faiths, God regulations, Judgess, forgives and he s the Godhead of the existence. Jerusalem is besides of major importance to both faiths. It was the metropolis where Christ was brought up, crucified, buried every bit good as resurrected. He besides healed, preached and cleansed the temple so its considered as a holy topographic point. The Al-Aqsa mosque in Sura Al-Isra besides called the furthest mosque is located in Jerusalem the sanctum land. Abdul-Rahman ( 55-64 ) the first Muslims besides prayed towards Jerusalem non Mecca and it was besides the topographic point where Muhammad ascended to heaven. The two faiths besides affirm that God sends angels and Prophetss to convey messages to his people and through divine Bibles reveals his Godhead will. They besides believe in the opinion twenty-four hours when God will step in in the history of world and find their ageless lives depending on personal beliefs and actions. Both faiths believe in the power of supplication and fasting as taught by their earlier Prophetss. Differences between Islam and Christianity Thrower ( 30-58 ) argues that Islam disagrees with some of the Christian beliefs about Jesus Christ like him being the boy of God and Jesus of world, besides the holy three of there being God the male parent, the boy and the Holy Spirit. Christians reject Islam s prophesier and Quran while the Muslims support that God ushers Christians but they perceive Bibles in their ain involvement. It is besides different the manner Muslims perceive the birth of Jesus compared to Christians. They believe that Jesus was created like Abraham while Christians believe that he was conceived by Virgin Mary through the Holy Spirit. They besides believe that Jesus was to be crucified but was miraculously saved while Christians believe he was crucified but resurrected. Christians believe that the Bible is Gods sanctum book which was written by people inspired by God and it teaches the will of God on world while the Muslims accept but believe that it has been corrupted to suit peoples involvements over the old ages. Decision Christianity and Islam are major universes faiths with the latter holding a greater figure of followings. They portion common beginning, values and some believes like God being supreme, Prophetss being God s couriers and opinion of humanity based on personal actions and religion while on Earth. The Quran and the Bible are considered as the two sanctum books written through God s inspiration though the Quran is believed was verbally revealed to prophet. Muhammad through angel Jibril. The two faiths have some major differences like the birth, crucification, decease and Resurrection of Jesus Christ. They besides differ in the originality of the sanctum bible as compared to that of the sanctum Quran every bit good as its reading by the Christians. The similarities between the two outweigh the differences. Plants Cited Abdul-Rahman, Muhammad, Saed. Islam inquiries and replies. Volume 22, MSA Publication Limited. Saudi Arabia. 1972 Lewis, Bernard A ; Churchill, Buntzie, Ellis. In the faith and the people. Illustrated. Wharton School Publishing, U.S.A, 2008 Stern, Bernard, Joseph. Science A ; society, Volume 12, 1-3, Concept Publishing Company, 1948. Strachey, Lytton A ; Holroyd Michael. Eminent Victorians, Nile Penguin Classics, 1986. Thrower, James. Marxist-Leninist scientific atheism and the survey of faith and godlessness in the USSR. Volume 25. Vienna ; Walter de Gruyter, 1983. Willliams, John, Adel. The Word of Islam. University of Texas. Qayrawan. 1994

San Francisco Earthquake Essay

San Francisco Earthquake Essay Free Online Research Papers Leading up to the Earthquake, foreshocks occurred in San Francisco, California on April 18, 1906. It was caused by the San Andreas Fault as a strike-slip fault that happened at 5:12 am. Before the destruction, there was stress deep in the grounds, plates were grinding. Its shaking and stress commenced from San Bautista to midway of North and West, approximately more than 295.5 miles, at 5:13 am. Abruptly, a temblor occurred, the first shock waves at about 5:13 am spread epidemically. Seismic waves spread, it made a surface change, its motion into liquid-like. The surface was shaking intensely that some cracks and faults in the ground appeared. Most of the grounds were torn or heaved, the magnitude was 7.8 and above. The temblor lasted for about a single minute. The complexity and amplitudes showed that its severe amplitude transcended the range capability of the seismograph, significantly off the scale. Although it caused a massive amount of damage of quake, it caused fires. The blaze caused firestorms that it triggered a terrifying inferno that spread for kilometers in most parts of California. Most of the neighborhoods were vanquished by the flames that were spreading and those that were already there. A majority of cities and buildings were buildings, there was no water to control the flames since for the unbelievable reason that the water pipelines were broken and the water mains were shut down since the Earthquake occurred. The total area felt were most parts of the western U.S. like Southern Oregon, Western Nevada, and California. The rupture surface line was in San Bautista, San Francisco, Point arena, and Shelter Cove. The damages were extremely severe that it produced countless little and large casualties, more than twenty-seven t housand, nine-hundred buildings were destroyed. Ceilings of every building collapsed, that the destructive intensity of the damage extended over 600 kilometers. Structures that were made of brick and frame were voluminously diminished or impaired. Fortunately, only one building is torn apart. An intense degree of annihilated places were the city of Fort Bragg and Santa Rosa since they were both violently ravaged by the Earthquake and Fire. Regrettably, not only above the ground was destroyed but also internally. The internal damages triggered the lack of water, sewers and water pipelines were broken, and water mains were broken or shut down. On the path of cars, roads crossed in fault-lines, it made an impassable track, the movement of the road turned to be about 3 to 4.5 meters long. Some roads were even bent into sideways or wavelike forms, and some collapsed especially in the freeways. Additionally, most of the trees swayed, broken off, or thrown down. The casualties of both the Earthquake and Fire were negatively strong. Dead human bodies and injured people were caused by the falling and collapsing buildings. Each building either has the ceilings collapse, walls or the surface top of the building falling down. As the fires gained momentum, some survivors gather to any place where they could find water, and it is the refuge plaza. In the plaza, some men and women were crying, others were praying, one was fanatic, saying â€Å"The lord sent it, the Lord!† The earthquake was horrifying that awakens people and gives a difficult sensation to believe, that in the palace hotel, G.A. Raymond was awoken by the Earthquake, he describes his escape: â€Å"I had $600.00 in gold under my pillow. I awoke as I was thrown out of bed. Attempting to walk, the floor shook so that I fell. I grabbed my clothing and rushed down into the office, where dozens were already congregated. Suddenly the lights went out, and every one rushed for the doo r†¦ I asked a man standing next to me what happened. Before he could answer a thousand bricks fell on him and he was killed. A woman threw her arms around my neck. I pushed her away and fled. All around me buildings were rocking and flames shooting. As I ran people on all sides were crying, praying and calling for help. I thought the end of the world had come.† The Earthquake caused massive amount of damage that it symbolizes the end of the world, according to Jerome B. Clark a business man lived in San Francisco â€Å"In every direction from the ferry building flames were seething, and as I stood there, a five-story building half a block away fell with a crash, and the flames swept clear across Market Street and caught a new fireproof building recently erected. The streets in places had sunk three or four feet, in others great humps had appeared four or five feet high. The street car tracks were bent and twisted out of shape.† The Earthquake also made difficulties of mailing and made disastrous events, according to the letter of Ernest H. Adams, a sales representative: â€Å"For me to describe the scenes and events of the past few days would be an impossibility at present, and no doubt you would have had more news regarding the awful fate of this city than I myself know. All that I can say at this writing is, that about 5:15 a.m., Wednesday morning, I was thrown out of bed and in a twinkling of an eye the side of our house [at 151- 24th Ave.] was dashed to the ground. How we go into the street I will never be able to tell, as I fell and crawled down the stairs amid flying glass and timber and plaster†¦ When the dust cleared away I saw nothing but a ruin of a house and home that it had taken twenty years to build. I saw the fires from the city arising in great clouds and it was no time to mourn my loss so getting into what clothing I could find, I started on a run for [115] Kearny St., five miles away .† The cost of the Earthquake was more than approximately 478 million dollars, in the examination, more than 79 million dollars from the earthquake, and 399 million dollars from the earthquake and fire alone. The people who were involved were firemen and citizens, most of the firemen stand by helplessly because the fire was intense and continuous, unfortunately, there was lack of water. The citizens were crying, most or all were injured, and bloodshed was common. There more than 2900 people dead. The great earthquake made an intense historical impact that it triggered new knowledge and research. Californians were hastily reconstruction their ruined buildings so far. The reconstruction also leads to the acclivity and prosperity of upgrading structures into earthquake-proof since they were in fact reinforced by steel, with the help of Engineers. Engineers also widened the streets, they widened it by capturing space either force or voluntarily relinquishing lands. Overtime after the San F rancisco Earthquake, the pursuit of knowledge of Earthquakes epidemically and or widely spread. It increased the observation of Earthquakes. A majority of Scientists in California did earthquake research about faults, shockwaves, and temblors, especially, comprehending how they occur, additionally, to measure the intensity of shaking, speculating the probabilities and predicting. Fortunately, geologists also investigate, they study how the earthquake occurred by compiling lists of historical earthquakes, recently or lately. As time and the prolonging research of Earthquakes went by, advanced technology rises, protection takes its place. The lead of a comprehensive earthquake came from monitoring the temblors. A strenuous earthquake research program is developed and over time, it increased. Since and after 1906, more seismographs were developed; it measures the shaking intensity and surveys the tracking plate motion, observes stress and distortion, and measures the movement of the Earth. The observations and data were the keys to mapping out the locations for certain purposes. Scientists made maps of locations containing detailed pictures of hundreds of faults, historical faults and future references of the earthquake being imminent. They used the maps as blueprints or to anticipate where the shaking is strong or intense. The maps helped engineers of where to build structures safely where temblors occur rarely. The reduction of Earthquake hazards were reduced as they upgrade, research, and revised their styles of structures, safety, and paths. Earthquake Research guided insurance companies by helping businesses and individuals deal affordably if earthquakes occur. There were contributions of scientists that helped the research. More than 19 scientists contributed the data of earthquakes, some published books, and others made electronic sources like a video, the internet, or radio. The Earthquake research, data, and references became a compiled document. It made a benchmark for the future, showed critical details about integrated and investigations of earthquakes, and it was the highest regard amid the seismologists. The progress provides significant advances of new knowledge, raises major questions, and stating long-term probabilities of Earthquakes. There were knowledge and publications of comparisons to common objects. It was the significant observation by Professor H.F. called â€Å"The elastic rebound†, it explains how the Earth elastically distort, it gave an example about bending down a stick until it snaps or breaks, that it causes stress, waves, shocks, and pressure. The theory also explains how the plate motion is accumulating, and a stately detail how the tectonic plates relate to the Earthquake occurrences and what evidence it is based. There were also people with great scientific insight about the earthquake and launched the science of eart hquakes. These people were Professor Lawson, Professor Reid, and Professor Gillbert. Research Papers on San Francisco Earthquake EssayHow did Humanity Begin?MRSA Staph BacteriaSexually Transmitted DiseasesThe Broken FamilyEnzymes Proteins Amino AcidsCanine ParvovirusElectromagnetic BombsThe Old Man and the Sea EssayThe Fifth HorsemanHistory of American Policing Essay

We're Moving On Up Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

We're Moving On Up - Essay Example The larger storage area should be placed to the left while the office should be placed to the right with a dividing wall between the two. Entry doors for both the office area and the storage area should be placed toward the center of the store as opposed to the sides as to increase visibility even when employees are entering and exiting these areas. By designing the layout in this format, both doors should open into the ties and toiletries department just to the right of the main aisle. This should provide sufficient space for all our storage and janitorial supply needs as well as provide adequate space for office work, filing and safe while still maintaining appropriate floor supervision. To continue appropriate sales floor supervision, the sales counter should be placed just to the left of the front entryway, enabling consumers to quickly locate it and placing sales staff in the front of the store to maintain a watchful eye on shoppers from the opposite side of the store from anyon e working in the office. Changing areas should be constructed on the left side wall approximately 20 feet from the front wall and extending approximately 20 feet toward the rear of the building and approximately 8 feet into the store. Although this placement blocks the business suit department slightly from the view of the sales counter, workers at the sales counter will still be able to see most of this department and will be able to keep a close eye on activities in the changing room area. Placing mirrored tiles on the back wall of the business suit department will further enhance visibility of this area from the sales counter. In terms of department layout, as consumers enter the front door, they should see the sales counter immediately to their left fronted by a small gifts department in which we will stock golf accessories and small, low-priced items designed for the impulse buyer. Behind this section will be the slacks department followed by the

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender - Essay Example This is not to say that he did not suffer the suppression of body, mind and spirit under alien masters or being an alien in his own country, as did millions of others before him. To imitate a popular statement: You can take colonialism out of a colony but you can not take a colony (of people) out of colonialism! Fanon was born in the French colony of Martinique, French Antilles in the Caribbean. Creole is the language of this colony and black, the colour of his skin. Under the French administration, Martinicians were born and brought up as Frenchmen or Frenchwomen. This superimposition of a European culture on an African community in the Caribbean islands formed the background to the evolution of Fanon’s thinking and writings1. Formally trained as a psychiatrist and a philosopher, he was an original thinker, Marxist revolutionary and writer on suppressive aspects of colonialism and propounded his views in his seminal works, most important of which are â€Å"Black Skin, White Masks† (1952) and â€Å"The Wretched of the Earth† (1961). Through these writings and other works, Fanon has helped us understand colonialism as more than the exercise of political and economic power, but as a psychological process. We shall analyse this argument in the light of his cultural moorings, his works and his revolutionary interpretations. The word colonialism has its origins in the mid-14th century Roman word ‘colonye’, a settlement, an outpost or occupied lands outside the Roman city states.2 ‘Colonialism’ is a 19th century concept of social, political and economic policy towards ‘occupied lands’ under the British imperialism. During the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations experienced renaissance of art, literature, music and drama even as Christianity and the church confronted the State to capture and control the minds of the people. The sea-faring

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender - Essay Example This is not to say that he did not suffer the suppression of body, mind and spirit under alien masters or being an alien in his own country, as did millions of others before him. To imitate a popular statement: You can take colonialism out of a colony but you can not take a colony (of people) out of colonialism! Fanon was born in the French colony of Martinique, French Antilles in the Caribbean. Creole is the language of this colony and black, the colour of his skin. Under the French administration, Martinicians were born and brought up as Frenchmen or Frenchwomen. This superimposition of a European culture on an African community in the Caribbean islands formed the background to the evolution of Fanon’s thinking and writings1. Formally trained as a psychiatrist and a philosopher, he was an original thinker, Marxist revolutionary and writer on suppressive aspects of colonialism and propounded his views in his seminal works, most important of which are â€Å"Black Skin, White Masks† (1952) and â€Å"The Wretched of the Earth† (1961). Through these writings and other works, Fanon has helped us understand colonialism as more than the exercise of political and economic power, but as a psychological process. We shall analyse this argument in the light of his cultural moorings, his works and his revolutionary interpretations. The word colonialism has its origins in the mid-14th century Roman word ‘colonye’, a settlement, an outpost or occupied lands outside the Roman city states.2 ‘Colonialism’ is a 19th century concept of social, political and economic policy towards ‘occupied lands’ under the British imperialism. During the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations experienced renaissance of art, literature, music and drama even as Christianity and the church confronted the State to capture and control the minds of the people. The sea-faring

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender - Essay Example This is not to say that he did not suffer the suppression of body, mind and spirit under alien masters or being an alien in his own country, as did millions of others before him. To imitate a popular statement: You can take colonialism out of a colony but you can not take a colony (of people) out of colonialism! Fanon was born in the French colony of Martinique, French Antilles in the Caribbean. Creole is the language of this colony and black, the colour of his skin. Under the French administration, Martinicians were born and brought up as Frenchmen or Frenchwomen. This superimposition of a European culture on an African community in the Caribbean islands formed the background to the evolution of Fanon’s thinking and writings1. Formally trained as a psychiatrist and a philosopher, he was an original thinker, Marxist revolutionary and writer on suppressive aspects of colonialism and propounded his views in his seminal works, most important of which are â€Å"Black Skin, White Masks† (1952) and â€Å"The Wretched of the Earth† (1961). Through these writings and other works, Fanon has helped us understand colonialism as more than the exercise of political and economic power, but as a psychological process. We shall analyse this argument in the light of his cultural moorings, his works and his revolutionary interpretations. The word colonialism has its origins in the mid-14th century Roman word ‘colonye’, a settlement, an outpost or occupied lands outside the Roman city states.2 ‘Colonialism’ is a 19th century concept of social, political and economic policy towards ‘occupied lands’ under the British imperialism. During the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations experienced renaissance of art, literature, music and drama even as Christianity and the church confronted the State to capture and control the minds of the people. The sea-faring

Translation and Technology Essay Example for Free

Translation and Technology Essay Contents 4 Computer-Aided Translation Tools and Resources Workbenches Translation support tools and resources Localization tools Commercial computer-aided translation tools Standards for data interchange Conclusion 5 Evaluating Translation Tools Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Stakeholders Evaluation methods General frameworks for evaluating translation tools Conclusion 6 Recent Developments and Future Directions Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Translation systems with speech technology. Translation systems for minority languages Translation on the web Machine translation systems and the semantic web The localization industry Conclusion 7 Translation Types Revisited Relationships between topics and translation types Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Conclusion Appendices References Index  93 93 106 113 117 119 128 129 129 131 133 135 139 151 152 152 156 157 162 164 166 170 171 172 173 191 193 195 197 204 218 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 Classification of translation types Machine translation model Machine translation system based on usage Human-aided machine translation model Machine-aided human translation model Chronology of translation theories Translation process model Example of sentence representations Holmes’ schema of translation studies A schema of  applied translation studies A model of the translation process including pre- and post-editing tasks Example of an English SL text and its pre-edited version Unedited and post-edited Spanish machine translation output Example of natural and controlled languages. Example of original English text and its AECMA simplified English version Example of natural English, simplified English and simplified Arabic texts Example of an English controlled language text and its translations Illustration of the translation process using a machine translation system Chronology of machine translation development Example of structural representations. Machine translation architectures Direct translation model Interlingua model Interlingua multilingual machine translation system model Transfer model Transfer using tree-to-tree parsing Transfer multilingual machine translation system model ix  7 9 10 12 13 23 29 31 37 42 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 58 68 68 70 72 72 74 75 76 x List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17 4. 18 4. 19 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 1 6. 2 Statistical-based model Probabilities workflow in the statistical-based approach Example-based model Translations by online machine translation systems Example of HTML code in a web page Example of the web page without HTML code Example of a translation workflow using a translation memory system Example of an English source text Pre-translation 1 Database model in translation memory systems Reference model in translation memory systems. Flowchart to illustrate how to build a parallel corpus Example of a text header in a corpus Example of part-of-speech tagging Example of a concordance for the word ‘round’ Types of tool used in a localization project Example of the translation process using a machine translation system, a translation database and a terminology database Example of TMX  data-sharing Example of a header in TMX Example of a body in TMX Example of a header in TBX Example of a body in TBX Example of XLIFF in the localization process Example of a header in XLIFF Example of a body in XLIFF Example of an alternate translation element in XLIFF Example of a glass-box evaluation. Example of a black-box evaluation Example of an evaluation process Standardization projects for evaluating machine translation systems EAGLES general evaluation framework Future-use model of translation technology Speech technology in translation. 78 80 81 87 99 99 102 102 103 103 104 109 110 111 112 114 117 120 121 122 124 125 126 127 127 127 138 139 141 142 145 154 158 Tables 1. 1 3. 1 An example of a table for describing translation types Example of a word entry in KAMI 8 67. List of Figures, Tables and Boxes  xi 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16 7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20 Imitation in the example-based approach Semantic similarity in the example-based approach Classification of commercial machine translation systems Example of perfect matching Examples of fuzzy matching Higher and lower threshold percentages for fuzzy matching Examples of matching suggestions for ‘bow’ Example of segments Example of translation units Example of English-French translation units from a database Classification of commercial computer-aided translation tools. Degree of automation Human intervention Integrated tools Application of theory Application of theory in machine translation systems Source-language texts Target-language texts Stages of the translation process Types of text Language dependency Types of source language Data interchange standards in translation Translation groups  and data interchange standards Levels of evaluation Methods of evaluation Features in a machine translation system Language coverage in machine translation systems Texts and computer-aided translation tools. Language dependency in computer-aided translation tools Number of languages in computer-aided translation tools. 82 82 88 95 96 97 98 100 101 102 118 174 175 175 176 177 178 180 181 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 193 194 194 195 Boxes 1. 1 5. 1 A translator at work FEMTI evaluation framework 14 147 Series Editors’ Preface Recent years have witnessed momentous changes in the study of Modern Languages, globally as well as nationally. On the one hand, the rapid growth of English as a universal lingua franca has rendered the command of other languages a less compelling commodity. On the other hand, the demand for intercultural mediators including translators and interpreters has grown as a result of many recent social, political and economic developments; these include legislative changes, the emergence of supranational organisations, the ease of travel, telecommunications, commercial pressures raising awareness of local needs, migration and employment mobility, and a heightened awareness of linguistic and human rights. Today, linguistically oriented students wishing to pursue a career in which they are able to further their interest in languages and cultures would be more inclined to choose vocationally relevant courses in which translation and interpreting play an important part rather than traditional. Modern Language degrees. Thus the possibilities for professional work in translation and interpreting have been extended, particularly as a result of developments in technology, whether as facilitating the translation process or as a means of dissemination and broadening access to communications in a range of media. The role of translation is, for example, becoming increasingly important in the context of modern media such as television and cinema, whether for documentary or entertainment purposes. And the technological possibilities for providing interpreting services, whether to the police officer on the beat or to the businessperson on a different continent, have extended the previously physically confined nature of mediating the spoken word. Not only do these new vistas open up opportunities for the professional linguist, they also point to expanding areas of research in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Practice and theory are of mutual benefit, especially in the case of a relatively young discipline such as Translation Studies. As a result, the first aim of this series, written primarily for the MA and advanced undergraduate student, is to highlight contemporary issues and concerns in order to provide informed, theoretically based, accounts of developments in translation and interpretation. The second aim is to provide ready access for students interested in the study and pursuit of Modern Languages to xii Series Editors’ Preface xiii vocational issues which are of relevance to the contemporary world of translating and interpreting. The final aim is to offer informed updates to practising professionals on recent developments in the field impacting on their discipline. Linguistic, Culture and Translation Studies University of Surrey Guildford UK GUNILLA ANDERMAN MARGARET ROGERS Acknowledgements I am indebted to three individuals for their contributions. This book would have taken more time to complete if it had not been for Chooi Tsien Yeo who researched background information for me. Words cannot express my gratitude to Stephen Moore, in between translation deadlines, for putting his experiences as a professional translator into writing. I am extremely indebted to Paul Marriott for his comments and suggestions, particularly on helping to visualize a new way to depict the multidimensional classification of translation types in Chapter 7. I would like to acknowledge especially the Duke University Libraries and Institute of Statistics and Decision Science at Duke University in providing me with the environment and research facilities where most of this book was written. Also my thanks to the National University of Singapore Libraries, George Edward Library at the University of Surrey, and the Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science at the University of Waterloo for their help. I would also like to acknowledge the following authors, publishers and organizations for allowing the use of copyright material in this book: John Hutchins, Harold Somers and Elsevier (Academic Press Ltd) for the classification of translation types in Chapter 1; Eugene Nida and the Linguistic Society of America for the translation process in Chapter 2; John Smart and Smart Communications, Inc. for the controlled and simplified English samples in Chapter 2; Francis Bond and Takefumi Yamazaki for the KAMI Malay–English dictionary entry in Chapter 3; Paolo Dongilli and Johann Gamper for the building of a parallel corpus in Chapter 4; Tony Jewtushenko and Peter Reynolds of OASIS for XLIFF in Chapter 4; Enrique de Argaez at Internet World Stats for the statistical figure on the Internet population in Chapter 6; Michael Carl, Reinhard Schaler, Andy Way, Springer Science and Business Media, and Kluwer Academic Publishers for the model of the future use of translation technology in Chapter 6. To Antonio Ribeiro, Tessadit Lagab, Margaret Rogers and Chooi Tsien Yeo, my most sincere thanks for translating from English into Portuguese, French, German and Chinese respectively. I am solely responsible for any translation errors that occurred. A special thank you goes to Elsie Lee, Shaun Yeo, Angeliki Petrits, Mirko Plitt and Ken Seng Tan for answering some of my queries. xiv Acknowledgements xv. To Caroline, Elizabeth, Gillian and Lyndsay, thank you for helping out with keying in corrections on the earlier drafts. Lastly, to my ‘sifu’ and friend Peter Newmark, a big thank-you for all the translation discussions we had during our coffee–biscuit sessions years ago. If it had not been for the series editors, Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers, this book would not have been written. I am forever grateful to both of them for their feedback and comments. Thanks to Jill Lake of Palgrave Macmillan for her patience and understanding due to my ‘country-hopping’ from Southeast Asia to North America during the writing of this book. Waterloo, Canada CHIEW KIN QUAH List of Abbreviations. ACRoTERMITE AECMA AIA ALPAC ALPS ALT-J/C ALT-J/E ALT-J/M AMTA ASCC ASD ATA BASIC BLEU BSO CAT CAT2 CESTA CFE CIA CICC CRATER CTE CULT DARPA DBMT DIPLOMAT DLT DTS EAGLES EARS EDIG Terminology of Telecommunications European Association of Aerospace Industries Aerospace Industries Association of America Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee Automatic Language Processing System Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Chinese Automatic Language Translator Japanese to English Automatic. Language Translator Japanese to Malay Association of Machine Translation in the Americas Automatic Spelling Checker Checker AeroSpace and Defence American Translators Association British American Scientific International, Commercial Bilingual Evaluation Understudy Buro voor Systeemontwikkeling Computer-Aided Translation Constructors, Atoms and Translators Campagne d’Evaluation de Systemes de Traduction Automatique Caterpillar Fundamental English Central Intelligence Agency Center of International Cooperation for Computerization Corpus Resources and Terminology Extraction Caterpillar Technical English Chinese University. Language Translator Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Dialogue-based Machine Translation Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Distributed Language Translation Descriptive Translation Studies Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards Effective, Affordable Reusable Speech-to-Text European Defence Industries Group xvi List of Abbreviations xvii. ELDA ELRA ENGSPAN ENIAC EURODICAUTUM EUROSPACE EUROTRA EVALDA EWG FAHQT/FAHQMT FEMTI GENETER GETA HAMT HICATS HT HTML IAMT IATE INTERSECT ISI ISLE ISO JEIDA JEITA JICST-E KAMI KANT KGB LDC LISA LMT LTC LTRAC MAHT MANTRA MARTIF Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency European Language Resources Association English Spanish Machine Translation System Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. European Terminology Database Aerospace  and Defence Industries Association of Europe European Translation Infrastructure d’EVALuation a ELDA Evaluation Working Group Fully Automatic High Quality (Machine) Translation A Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation in ISLE Generic Model for Terminology Groupe d’Etude pour la Traduction Automatique Human-Aided/Assisted Machine Translation Hitachi Computer Aided Translation System Human Translation HyperText Markup Language International Association of Machine Translation Inter-Agency Terminology Exchange International Sample of English Contrastive. Texts International Statistical Institute International Standards for Language Engineering International Organization for Standardization Japan Electronic Industry Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Association Japan Information Center of Science and Technology Kamus Melayu-Inggeris (Malay-English Dictionary) Knowledge-based Accurate Translation Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti Linguistic Data Consortium Localisation Industry and Standards Association Logic-based Machine. Translation Language Technology Centre Language Translation Resources Automatic Console Machine-Aided/Assisted Human Translation Machine Assisted Translation Machine Readable Terminology Interchange Format xviii List of Abbreviations  MASTOR MAT METAL METU MLIR MT NAATI NIST OASIS OCP OCR OLIF OS OSCAR PaTrans PAHO PDA PESA RDF RFC SALT SGML SPANAM SUSY SYSTRAN TAP TAUM TBX TEMAA TGT-1 THETOS TMF TMX TOLL TONGUES TS TTS Multilingual Automatic Speech-to-Speech Translator Machine-Aided/Assisted. Translation Mechanical Translation and Analysis of Language Middle East Technical University MultiLingual Information Retrieval Machine Translation National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. National Institute of Standards and Technology Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards Oxford Concordance Programme Optical Character Recognition Open Lexicon Interchange Format Operating System Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use Patent. Translation Pan-American Health Organization Personal Digital Assistant Portuguese-English Sentence Alignment Resource Description Framework Request for Comments Standards-based Access to Lexicographical Terminological Multilingual Resources Standard Generalised Markup Language Spanish American Machine Translation System Saarbrucker UbersetzungsSYstem System Translation. Think-Aloud Protocols Traduction automatique a l’Universite de Montreal TermBase eXchange Testbed Study of Evaluation Methodologies: Authoring Aids Text-into-Gesture Translator Text into Sign Language Automatic Translator for Polish Terminological Markup Framework Translation Memory eXchange Thai On-Line Library Act II Audio Voice Translation Guide Systems Translation Studies Theoretical Translation Studies List of Abbreviations xix. WebDIPLOMAT WebOnt WWW W3C XLIFF XLT XML Web Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Web Ontology World Wide Web WWW Consortium XML Localisation Interchange File Format XML Representation of Lexicons and Terminologies Extensible or Extensive Markup Language. This page intentionally left blank Introduction For over half a century, the demand for a variety of translations by different groups of end-users has enabled many types of translation tools to be developed. This is reflected in the systems that will be discussed in this book, ranging from machine translation systems, computer-aided translation tools and translation resources. The majority of books and articles on translation technology focusing on the development of these systems and tools have been written from the point of view of researchers and developers. More recent publications written with translators in mind have focused on the use of particular tools. This book is intended as an introduction to translation technology for students of translation. It can also be useful to professional translators and those interested in knowing about translation technology. A different approach is taken in that descriptions of particular tools are not provided, and the development of different machine translation and computer-aided translation tools and their uses are discussed. Programming details and mathematical equations are not considered, except in the discussion of the statistical approach to machine translation where minimal essential formulae are included. Descriptions are given to allow readers to further investigate specific approaches or issues that might interest them, using references cited throughout the book. It is also important to note that no particular approach or design is deemed to be better than any other. Each and every one has their strengths and weaknesses. In many cases, readers will find that examples of systems and tools are given but this does not suggest that they are the best; they are simply examples to illustrate the points made. 1 2 Translation and Technology. While researching this book, I discovered that the majority of publications from the literature on translation technology are about the development of machine translation systems, primarily involving experimental systems developed or being developed at a number of universities and large commercial corporations across the globe. The book will show that many of these systems never achieved their commercial potential and remained as experimental tools, while some others served as tools for other natural-language processing applications. By contrast, not much literature seems to be available on computeraided tools such as translation memory systems. As we shall see in this book, most computer-aided translation tools are developed by commercial companies and, as a result, progress reports on these tools are rarely published in the public domain. Furthermore, to cater to different needs and demands, a tool like a translation memory system comes in many versions from the most basic to the most advanced. Insights into the use of these tools can be found in translator magazines and occasionally also posted on the World Wide Web (WWW). The evaluation of translation tools falls into a field that is wellresearched. Again we will see that most of the literature focuses on the evaluation of machine translation systems. Furthermore, the extensive use of translation tools and translation processes involved in the localization industry tend to be discussed separately, giving the impression that they are not related to translation. These two areas are, however, directly relevant to translation technology. Hence they are also included in this book. Essentially, the book contains what is felt should be included in order to provide an overview of translation technology. In order to keep the book at the given length, the topics have been carefully selected with some described in greater detail than others. In some chapters, an abbreviated historical background has been deemed necessary in order to provide a better understanding of the topics discussed, especially in the description of the development of machine translation systems and their evaluation. However, in all cases, references have been provided which readers may choose to pursue at a later time. Suggestions for further reading are provided at the end of every chapter (Chapters 1 to 6). The first chapter discusses the definitions of terms referring to the use of computers in translation activities. Some of the terms can be confusing to anyone who is unfamiliar with translation tools. In some cases, the same translation tools are given different names depending on what they are used for; in other cases, a tool may be differently classified depending on the perspective of those who have developed that tool. Introduction 3 The aim in this chapter is therefore to clarify these terminological and related matters. An alternative perspective to the four basic translation types – fully automated high-quality machine translation, human-aided machine translation, machine-aided human translation, and human translation – first proposed by Hutchins and Somers (1992) is introduced to reflect current developments in translation technology. This will be explored in more detail in the final chapter where the four translation types are reviewed in relation to topics described in the book. The second chapter discusses technology within the larger framework of Translation Studies as a discipline, focusing on the relationship between the engineering of translation technology, on the one hand, and Translation Studies including translation theory, on the other hand. The relationship between academic and professional groups involved in translation is also examined. This in turn leads to a discussion of the involvement of a particular approach in linguistic theories – known as ‘formalisms’ in natural-language processing – especially in the design of machine translation systems. A different perspective on the translation process involving pre- and post-editing tasks using a special variety of language called ‘controlled language’ is also presented. This translation process is described using the translation model proposed by Jakobson (1959/2000), a translation model that differs significantly from the one proposed by Nida (1969). The third chapter gives detailed descriptions of different machine translation system designs also known as ‘architectures’. The development of machine translation over several decades, its capabilities and the different types of machine translation systems, past and present, are also included. Both experimental and commercial systems are discussed, although the focus is on the experimental systems. Even though machine translation has been well-documented elsewhere, a discussion is deemed to be important for this book. It is felt that modern-day professional translators should be informed about machine translation systems because there is every reason to believe, as we shall discover in Chapter 6, that future trends in translation technology are moving towards integrated systems where at least one translation tool is combined with another, as is already the case in the integration of machine translation with translation memory. The fourth chapter describes the architectures and uses of several computer-aided translation tools, such as translation memory systems, as well as resources such as parallel corpora. Unlike machine translation systems, which are largely developed by universities, most computeraided translation tools are developed by commercial companies. Thus, 4 Translation and Technology information about such tools is harder to obtain. This chapter will also show that computer-aided translation tools are becoming more advanced and using different operating systems, and so ‘standards for data interchange’ have been created. Three different standards are described. Currently available commercial translation tools are also discussed. In addition, this chapter presents an overview of other commercially available tools such as those used in the localization industry. The fifth chapter touches on the evaluation of translation technology. The discussion focuses on different groups of stakeholders from research sponsors to end-users. Also included in the discussion are the different methods of evaluation: human, machine, and a combination of human and machine as evaluator. The choice of method used depends on who the evaluation is for and its purpose. It also depends on whether an entire tool or only some components are evaluated. Also described in this chapter is the general framework of evaluation offered by various research groups in the USA and Europe. The literature on evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of machine translation systems either during the developmental stage or after the process of development is completed. Less information is available on the evaluation of computeraided translation tools. What is available is found mainly in translation journals, magazines and newsletters. The sixth chapter presents some recent developments and shows the direction in which translation technology is heading, in particular regarding the future of machine translation systems that are now incorporating speech technology features. The integration of speech technology and traditional machine translation systems allows translation not only between texts or between stretches of speech, but also between text and speech. This integration is proving to be useful in many specific situations around the globe especially in international relations and trade. This chapter also looks at research projects in countries that are involved in the development of translation tools for minority languages and discusses the problems encountered in developing machine translation systems for languages that are less well-known and not widely spoken. Another form of technology called the ‘Semantic Web’ that has the potential to improve the performance of certain machine translation systems is also described. Included in this chapter, too, are issues such as linguistic dominance and translation demands on the WWW that are already shaping parts of the translation industry. The book concludes by presenting an expanded version of the four basic classifications of translation types as suggested by Hutchins and Somers (1992) and introduced in Chapter 1. It is concluded that the Introduction 5 one-dimensional linear continuum originally proposed is no longer able to accurately reflect current developments in translation technology. Translation tools today come in different versions and types depending on the purposes for which they are built. Some are multifunctional while others remain monofunctional. An alternative way must therefore be found to depict the complexities and multidimensional relationships between the four translation types and the topics discussed in this book. It is not possible to put every single subject discussed here into one diagram or figure, and so, in order to gain a better understanding of how the issues are related to one another, they are divided into groups. Topics or issues in each group have a common theme that links them together, and are presented in a series of tables. However, it is important to bear in mind that not all topics can be presented neatly and easily even in this way. This clearly shows the complexity and multidimensionality of translation activities in the modern technological world. At the end of the book, several Appendices provide information on the various Internet sites for many different translation tools and translation support tools such as monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, thesauri and encyclopaedia. Only a selected few are listed here, and as a result the lists are not exhaustive. It is also important to note that some Internet sites may not be permanent; at the time of the writing, every effort has been made to ensure that all sites are accessible. 1 Definition of Terms In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe translation tools are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ machine translation (MT); machine-aided/assisted human translation (MAHT); human-aided/assisted machine translation (HAMT); computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT); machine-aided/assisted translation (MAT); fully automatic high-quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/FAHQMT). Distinctions between some of these terms are not always clear. For example, computer-aided translation (CAT) is often the term used in Translation Studies (TS) and the localization industry (see the second part of this chapter), while the software community which develops this type of tool prefers to call it ‘machine-aided translation’ (MAT). As the more familiar term among professional translators and in the field of Translation Studies, ‘computer-aided translation’ is used throughout the book to represent both computer-aided translation and machine-aided translation tools, and the term ‘aided’ is chosen instead of ‘assisted’, as also in ‘human-aided machine translation’ and ‘machine-aided human translation’. Figure 1.  1 distinguishes four types of translation relating human and machine involvement in a classification along a linear continuum introduced by Hutchins and Somers (1992: 148). This classification, now more than a decade old, will become harder to sustain as more tools become multifunctional, as we shall see in Chapters 3, 4 and 6. Nevertheless, the concept in Figure 1. 1 remains useful as a point of reference for classifying translation in relation to technology. 6 Definition of Terms 7 MT CAT Machine Fully automated high quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/ FAHQMT) Human-aided machine translation (HAMT) Machine-aided human translation (MAHT) Human Human translation (HT) MT = machine translation; CAT = computer-aided translation Figure 1. 1 Source: Classification of translation types Hutchins and Somers (1992): 148. The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully automatic high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention. At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel 1960/2003: 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of Figure 1. 1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate translation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3). As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear. Both classes are considered to be computer-aided translation as indicated in Figure 1. 1 (Tong 1994: 4,730; see also Slocum 1988; Hutchins and Somers 1992). However, in Schadek and Moses (2001), a different classification has been proposed where only machine-aided human translation is viewed as synonymous with computer-aided translation. Human-aided machine translation is considered as a separate category. The reasoning behind the view offered by Schadek and Moses is not difficult to understand. At least theoretically, the difference between the two is obvious. For human-aided machine translation, the machine is the principal translator, while in machine-aided human translation it is a human. In practice, however, it may be less easy today to draw a distinguishable boundary between them. The blurring of boundaries is further complicated when human-aided machine translation is considered as a subclass of machine translation, an approach chosen by Chellamuthu (2002). Since human-aided machine translation has 8 Translation and Technology the machine as the principal translator –